Abstract:

Existing research on Chinese apprenticeship system has primarily focused on its characteristics as a form of wage labor, while failing to address the underlying ethics of action-specifically, the distinctive "patriarchal" features inherent to the system. From the perspective of behavioural ethics, the possibility of establishing a master-apprentice relationship lies in the tendency to integrate new social relationships outside the family into existing ethical frameworks. Pre-Qin Confucian literatures encapsulate the ethical essence of master-apprentice bonds as "between affection(En) and righteousness(Yi)": the character-building objectives of their interactions define the ethical dimension of "Yi"; while their shared daily life and moral exchanges grounded in shared values define the ethical dimension of "En". This ethical relationship manifested in mourning rituals through the practice of three-year period of "mourning with the heart".The master-apprentice relationship exhibits remarkable flexibility in China's historical records: on the one hand, while quasi-familial phenomena were commonplace in Chinese society, written norms lacked explicit standards for such a relationship, rendering it exceptionally adaptable compared to other social relations. On the other hand, the master-apprentice relation had appeared intermittently throughout historical records, with its visibility generally correlating with the prominence of Confucian thought movements outside official institutions. This flexibility stem from the subjectivity with which actors perceive bonds of obligation and gratitude. Unlike foundational Confucian relationships such as father-son or monarch-subject, the master-apprentice relationship lacked objectively defined criteria. It was not anchored in clear blood ties or contractual agreements, consequently, the ritual system was incapable of imposing rigid and one-size-fits-all rules. Instead, it preserved a foundation of basic etiquette while allowing actors to express sentiments based on subjective emotions. This dual-dimensional perception of affection(En) and righteousness(Yi) continues to shape contemporary Chinese interpersonal interactions.

Key words: master-apprentice relationship, patriarchal feature, mourning apparel, righteousness(Yi), ethics of social actions