Table of Content

20 January 2026, Volume 46 Issue 1

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Governing by Project System: A Holistic Explanation Based on Four-Fold Mechanisms

SHI Puyuan

2026, 46(1):  1-30. 

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Why can the project system be implemented in a stable, widespread and highly pervasive manner， and what operational logic does it demonstrate in specific governance practices？This paper distinguishes between two levels: the observational perspective and the analytical dimension. The former encompasses the relationship between the central and local governments， as well as that between the state and society; the latter includes the essential intent of the system， and the interactive practices of multiple subjects. Based on these two levels， this paper identifies four typical mechanisms：externality， principal-agent， legitimacy， and embeddedness， thereby providing a holistic interpretive framework for project-based governance. The externality mechanism addresses the spatial and temporal spillovers of project costs and benefits， while the ambiguous division of rights and responsibilities between central and local authorities leads to significant tensions. Moreover， it emphasizes the logic of public goods while failing to adequately capture the logic of modernization and development. The principal-agent mechanism focuses on analyzing the organizational transmission between central and local authorities， especially the multi-tasking problem， as well as the information asymmetry and ambiguity arising from different directions of specialised and localized knowledge. It also helps explain the bundling practices of economic development and social welfare， and the emerging phenomena of hybrid governance and project package contracting. The legitimacy mechanism explores how performance， procedural， and moral legitimacy are isomorphically and heterogeneously intertwined in complex project governance practices， and how are they manifested in grass-roots project operations. The embeddedness mechanism aims to clarify the “dual-track” politics and how it influences project operation modes and effectiveness.It also helps analyze the heterogeneity of project system， as well as the institutional changes of state governance. In addition to focusing on each mechanism separately， this paper also provides certain prospects from the perspectives of multi-dimensional and comprehensive interactions between multiple mechanisms.

Breaking the Iron Cage: Personal Ties，Adaptive Rule-Bending，and the Neo-Weberian Reconstruction of Bureaucracy

LIU Chang

2026, 46(1):  31-70. 

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In response to sweeping critiques of bureaucracy in Western intellectual discourse, the neo-Weberian tradition has adopted a global perspective to examine how bureaucratic institutions take shape across diverse institutional and cultural contexts. Seeking to recover the constructive potential of bureaucracy， this body of work reconsiders Weber’s canonical features and explores their pragmatic and normative adaptations. Within this framework， particular attention has been paid to two themes—personal ties and adaptive rule-bending—both of which hold significant relevance for governance practices in China. This article traces the historical origins of the neo-Weberian research， reviews representative empirical studies centered on these two elements， and excavates the theoretical assumptions and normative commitments that underpin them. I argue that the so-called “revival of bureaucracy” is， at its core， a search for how value rationality might be re-integrated into systems increasingly dominated by formal rationality. The use of personal ties or adaptive rule-bending is treated as a strategic means through which morally conscious bureaucrats might absorb， recalibrate， and ultimately incorporate anti-bureaucratic elements into a rationalized administrative order. Yet this technocratic vision of bureaucratic moral agency rests on a universalizing assumption：that commitment to the public sphere， distinct from private interests， constitutes the sole legitimate foundation of bureaucratic ethics. This assumption overlooks the plural moral orders embedded in distinct institutional and historical contexts and forecloses the possibility of alternative sources of organizational legitimacy beyond the bureaucratic form itself. While the neo-Weberian framework offers valuable reparative insights， it remains confined by the limits of its own theoretical imagination. For scholars of Chinese governance， this calls for a renewed effort to locate moral and institutional foundations for bureaucracy that are rooted in indigenous historical experience and ethical traditions.

Individual Freedom within Social Control: An Interpretation of Dewey’s Curriculum Reform from Social Theory Perspective

YANG Yong

2026, 46(1):  71-108. 

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This paper analyzes and discusses Dewey’s curriculum reform to specifically reveal the substantive content and empirical basis underlying the iconic concept of “social control” in American social theory. In his dialogues with progressive educators，Dewey explicitly opposed the notion of “individual freedom without social control” and advocated instead for “individual freedom within social control”. This viewpoint was concretely manifested through the curriculum reform of the Laboratory School. In the field of education，social control refers to teachers guiding students to immerse themselves in the “situations” presented by the curriculum through the implementation of curriculum plans and the use of teaching materials，so that students can perceive the guidance and control of social forces in terms of their behaviors，ideas and emotions. Applying an analytical framework that examines the interaction between “action” and “environment” further illuminates the theoretical implications of social control. On the one hand，Dewey engaged with Rousseau’s theory of natural education，arguing that individual actions are inevitably controlled by the social environment，and the traditions of civilization hold indelible educational significance. On the other hand，he opposed Durkheimian social education，maintaining that social control that truly fulfills its educational function cannot be separated from individuals’ internal responses，and arguing that activating individuals’ behavioral states through the “stimulus-response” mechanism constitutes a more important educational end. Overall，Dewey sought to use the concept of social control to describe a state of life where individuals wholeheartedly “act” in an “environment” with inherent meaning，and on this basis，to reconceptualize the relationship between individual freedom and civilizations. Dewey’s concept of social control shaped the problem awareness of early American social theory and is intrinsically consistent with the connotation of “the pedagogical power”（教化权力） as expounded by Hsiao-Tung Fei. Clarifying this connection will help us reflect on the complex relationship between individual freedom and civilized traditions，and inspires actions based on sound judgment.

The Gentry and the Genesis of Modern Industry in China: A Case Study of the Pingxiang Coal Mines in the Late Qing Dynasty

MENG Qi

2026, 46(1):  109-137. 

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Taking the establishment of the Pingxiang Coal Mines as a case study， this paper explores the specific mechanisms through which modern industry took root in late Qing China. A definitive feature of Chinese society at the time was the central position occupied by the gentry class within its social structure， coupled with the absence of modern legal systems and a functioning state apparatus. This constituted a major divergence between China’s social environment and those of Western Europe and Japan during the introduction of modern industry. The impact of this divergence on China’s modern industrialisation was complex：some attempts to introduce industrial enterprises failed due to opposition from the gentry， while others succeeded. This paper examines the Pingxiang Coal Mines as one such relatively successful case. It argues that the stratification and internal connections within the gentry class played a crucial role in integrating the enterprise into local society. Upper-tier gentry figures such as Wen Tingshi served a dual role as both state bureaucrats and local elites. The ethical and interest tensions inherent in these identities fostered a persuasive transmission process from self-strengthening bureaucrats to upper gentry and further to lower-tier elites. Local gentry， drawing upon existing gentry networks， formed an intermediary group that facilitated communication between enterprises and local communities， promoting the alignment of interests between the two. As a result， the Pingxiang Coal Mines achieved large-scale acquisition of local industries and the initiation of modern industrial production， thereby driving much broader social transformation. This paper suggests that， under specific historical conditions， the collision between China’s traditional social environment and modern industry may have configured to forge a unique development trajectory， generating a new power-interest structure between enterprises and local society， triggering industrial transformation and comprehensive social change. The paper reveals the intrinsic connection between China’s industrial development and social transformation， providing a reference point for understanding contemporary relations between enterprises and society.

Between Qing and Li: From Father-Son Estrangement to Father-Son Unity—A Case Study of Ang Lee’s Father Trilogy

LI Shuoyan, LIU Yiyi

2026, 46(1):  138-170. 

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This article takes Ang Lee’s Father Trilogy as a case study to examine the root causes of conflict and the mechanisms of reconfiguration in contemporary Chinese father-son relations. It argues that the tensions between fathers and sons depicted in the films do not stem solely from the clash between traditional and modern values, but are rooted in the structural repression of qing （affection） by the normative force of li （ritual/propriety） in Confucian ethics. When fathers， in the name of “it’s for your own good”， stubbornly uphold ritual demands such as patrilineal continuity and stern paternal authority， sons are caught in a constant tug-of-war between fulfilling filial obligations and pursuing self-realization. Building on the Confucian dialectic of qing and li， the article introduces the phenomenological notion of the halo of time， and shows that the repair of father-son relations is not a zero-sum game of unilateral concession. Rather， reconciliation emerges through shared memories and overlapping temporal experiences， in which the intertwining of retention， primal impression， and protention reactivates an original sense of kinship （qinqin zhi qing）， thereby driving context-specific adjustments in ritual practice. However， even when fathers temporarily suspend their fixation on li and sons， through affective recognition， reconstruct their practice of filial piety， the deeper structural tension does not disappear. This is because male offspring are more tightly embedded in the pressure chain of family responsibility and thus confronted with a structural double bind in which paternal love always entails expectation， while the pursuit of freedom almost inevitably implies betraying that love. In sum， the article constructs an integrated analytical framework of qing-li-time， arguing that under conditions of loosening authority and family transformation， an affect-centered ethical logic still plays a crucial stabilizing and mediating role amid conflict. This study not only clarifies the dynamics of change in Chinese father-son relations but also provides a broadly applicable framework for understanding the emotional dynamics of kinship in cross-cultural contexts.

Becoming Situated Artists: Identity Construction of Slash Photographers

ZHANG Jiaxue, YUAN Tongkai

2026, 46(1):  171-205. 

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Through a case study of the Yangyu rural photography project， this paper seeks to present the situated identity practices experienced by middle-class photographers in the context of slash careers. It attempts to explain why urban residents with stable primary occupations repeatedly participate in rural photography projects and immerse themselves in “living like artists” during short-term residencies， even when livelihood pressures or mobility demands are not the primary motivations. Within a highly institutionalized career system， the primary occupation of photographer slash-line visual creators provides security and dignity. Yet it also dictates their daily life through demanding work schedules and relentless performance expectations. Often photography—a relatively stable hobby—is squeezed into the fleeting hours after work， leaving them torn and burdened between their professional responsibilities and creative aspirations. Faced with this situation， they often embrace the “artist” identity as a source of support. By leveraging the elevated status mainstream narratives assign to artists and their close association with creativity， they find a fulcrum for self-meaning， repeatedly adjusting their commitment between institutional dependence and autonomous needs. Thus， entering visual communities for local creation becomes a crucial way for them to pursue artistic identity. In terms of interaction dynamics， the visual community is guided and organized by “artist-journalists”， presenting itself as a collaborative circle that blends public engagement with individual expression while maintaining a non-hierarchical style. This structure allows creators to transform their private creative persistence into a shared， discussable practice through relatively stable interactions. Regarding content， this community emphasizes field-style documentary filming of daily life. Through collective organization and interpretation of these images， it constructs narrative spaces that connect fragmented shooting experiences into coherent expressive threads， achieving an aesthetic reconstruction of everyday existence. Entering the exhibition phase， the intervention of the county-level public cultural system and curatorial team provides artists with a path to public recognition through both offline displays and online dissemination. Repeated public narration and reevaluation of the works’ value also enable the photographers to achieve self-affirmation of their artistic identity. However， local creation within the visual community operates on the premise of “short-term residencies”， where the construction of artistic identity often manifests as a phased self-narrative. On one hand， rural photography projects formally distance themselves from urban daily life; on the other， participants deliberately maintain a state of “both intimate and distant” relationships. This dynamic makes “living like an artist” easier to stimulate and affirm within the project itself， yet difficult to seamlessly carry back into the photographer’s post-departure daily lives. Moreover， this phased self-narrative is paradoxically shaped by the temporal constraints of primary occupations and the logic of capital. The redistribution of time and energy presents an inescapable practical challenge for nearly all participants. Consequently， some creators do not entirely separate their professional identities from their creative sphere； instead， they leverage existing social relationships as a “more efficient” resource for their work. Economic considerations also become embedded in the selection and curation of creative content through more subtle， everyday ways. Based on these observations， this paper challenges existing interpretations that frame multiple professional identities primarily as livelihood strategies or tools for mobility. Instead， it argues that the identity construction of photographers with a slash identity should be understood as a situated identity practice unfolding within institutionalized career systems. This identity construction temporarily repairs the oppressive life experiences imposed by the time structure of primary occupations and rebuilds self-meaning through phased engagement in visual communities and local creative activities. Yet， within the cycle of returning to primary occupations and sustained participation， it exposes an irreconcilable tension between dependence and autonomy. The study enriches our understanding of the life circumstances and identity experiences of contemporary middle-class groups within the context of slash careers.

“Seeing a TCM Doctor” and the Educational Gradient in Health: An Empirical Analysis Based on an Ordered Chain Model

SUN Jinghan, LI Sheng, LI Kelin

2026, 46(1):  206-239. 

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For Chinese people，the choice between traditional Chinese medicine （TCM） and Western medicine is a common decision faced when seeking treatment or maintaining health. Although previous studies have explored the mechanisms underlying the “educational gradient in health” from individual，family，and social perspectives，findings based on the Western medical paradigm have largely overlooked the potential influence of TCM preferences in healthcare behavior. Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey and an ordered chain mediation model，this study finds that the behavior of “seeking TCM” （i.e.，a stronger preference for TCM over Western medicine） can serve as a mediating variable between educational attainment and self-rated health. This result remains robust after conducting both robustness and endogeneity tests. Regarding the explanatory mechanisms，the self-assessed perception of health among Chinese people，coupled with the increasingly sensitive physical awareness associated with higher education levels，makes highly educated individuals more prone to perceive themselves as unhealthy and to engage in healthcare-seeking behaviors. Compared to Western medicine，TCM’s philosophy of “preventing illness before it occurs” and its relational model of collaborative patient-doctor care can more effectively address self-assessed health concerns. Therefore，individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to choose TCM，and ultimately experience an improvement in their self-rated health due to the effective response to self-diagnosis. The research results provide empirical support for the formulation of health policies tailored to China’s context to promote high quality national health.