Table of Content

20 March 2026, Volume 46 Issue 2

Previous Issue   

The Social World of Scholar-Officials in Traditional China: A Micro-Sociological Analysis of Zeng Guofan's Diary and Correspondence

Xueguang ZHOU, Jiashuo ZHANG

2026, 46(2):  1-29. 

Asbtract ( 17 )   HTML ( 2)   PDF (4424KB) ( 33 )  

Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

Building on the sociological insight into the "social construction of reality", this study examines how scholar-officials (士大夫) in traditional China constructed their social worlds through everyday activities that served as the basis for social action. Our study begins with the observation that, throughout Chinese history, Confucian culture had fostered a dualism between a family-state-oriented spiritual world and a secular world of kin-based social relations. Although these two worlds integrated, they were fraught with tensions, imparting distinctive characteristics to China's state-building and bureaucratic system. Building on this observation, this study applies a micro-sociological analysis of the diaries and correspondences of Zeng Guofan, a prominent late Qing scholar-official. We explore the relationship between Zeng's social activities and his spiritual pursuits, with a particular focus on the con struction of his social world. Our research reveals that Zeng's spiritual pursuits and social activities were largely distinct from one another and rarely intersected. We measure and analyze types of social groups with whom Zeng interacted, the interaction patterns both within and between groups, and the structural features of the social network centered on Zeng Guofan. While Zeng's two worlds remained distinct, his social world was structured by a"differential mode of association"(差序格局), a relational pattern that was dynamic and evolved over time. By leveraging the depth of a case-study approach, this study makes two main contributions. First, it develops a research approach of combining theoretical insights and analytical concepts for examining individuals' social worlds, a central concern in sociology. Second, it proposes and demonstrates a set of empirical strategies for operationalizing textual data drawn from diary and correspondence. We hope this study will stimulate further research on the social worlds of scholar- officials in Chinese history and their implications for understanding governance in contemporary China.

The Foundation of the Reconstruction of China's Sociology as Seen Through Wu Wenzao's Academic Readings in the 1960s and 1970s: An Examination Based on Wu's Diaries

Feiyu SUN

2026, 46(2):  30-76. 

Asbtract ( 9 )   HTML ( 1)   PDF (5190KB) ( 14 )  

Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

The reconstruction of Chinese sociology in 1979 marked a significant event in the history of sociology in China. Today there is an established standard narrative regarding the starting point of this reconstruction. This paper begins by asking: Is there a prehistory preceding this starting point?Based on Mr. Wu Wenzao's diaries from 1956 to 1985, this study systematically examines his academic readings in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as his academic work and interactions with Pan Guangdan, Fei Xiaotong, Lin Yaohua, and other scholars during this period. The paper argues that, the restoration and reconstruction of Chinese sociology did not take place on a blank slate. Despite the abolishment of sociology and severe disruptions to their personal lives and well-being, Wu Wenzao and other scholars, as a community, continued to engage in academic readings in the 1960s and 1970s. This allowed them to keep pace with the global development of disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and ethnology and enabled them to gain a firm grasp of the mainstream trends and classic works of social sciences worldwide. Moreover, academic exchanges with overseas scholars in the 1970s helped them gain a deeper understanding of the developments of global social sciences. All these factors served as the academic spark and fundamental conditions for the reconstruction of Chinese sociology.More importantly, over many years, Wu Wenzao and Fei Xiaotong maintained the academic community established during the Yanjing period. The strategies that Wu Wenzao employed in developing the "Yanjing School" and the maintenance of this community became the implicit foundation for the reconstruction of Chinese sociology.This paper employs Michel Foucault's method of archaeology of knowledge to explore the readings of scholars represented by Wu Wenzao during the period when sociology was banned in China. This study finds that the starting point of the standard narrative of sociology's reconstruction resembles more a "turning point" of knowledge and power: after this starting point, previously silent knowledge began to emerge from history, regaining space and power. Consequently, the readings of Wu Wenzao became a peculiar "prehistory": highly foresighted and preparatory, they provided the conditions, perspectives, historical experiences, and numerous possibilities for the reconstruction of sociology led by Fei Xiaotong and the construction of a renewed body of social scientific knowledge.

The Emergence of E-Commerce Village Tiggered by Marginal Peasant Households

Tianyu QIAO, Zeqi QIU

2026, 46(2):  114-146. 

Asbtract ( 10 )   HTML ( 0)   PDF (4103KB) ( 11 )  

Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

When it comes to technological transformation in rural e-commerce, the role of marginal farmers cannot be overlooked. Marginal peasant households are the key drivers behind the emergence and development of e-commerce villages. Previous studies on the development of e-commerce villages have yet to establish an explanatory link between micro actions to macro outcomes. This study is grounded in a case analysis of Nanzhuang Village in Cao County, Shandong Province, China. Through field surveys, data are collected on the village's social networks, the diffusion of e-commerce skills, and the engagement of households in e-commerce entrepreneurship. First, the core-periphery model proposed by Borgatti and Everett is applied to to classify the social structural positions of households within the village. Analysis of the dynamic e-commerce entrepreneurship participation rates across these positions reveals that the earliest e-commerce entrepreneurs come from semi-peripheral or peripheral positions, rather than from the social core in the village. Further analysis of the e-commerce skill diffusion network data using blockmodeling and relational event modeling (REM) indicates that the diffusion of e-commerce skills in village is also primarily driven by marginal peasant households. Furthermore, this study investigates the dimension of collective attitudes. Through examining mutual influences among households and combining computational simulations with empirical observational data, this study offers a bottom-up, generative explanation for the emergence of e-commerce villages. It seeks to reveal the critical conditions and underlying mechanisms that enable marginal households to be the first to trigger this transformation. The analysis finds that the initial open-minded attitude toward e-commerce entrepreneurship of marginal peasant households served as a crucial condition in the formation of e-commence villages. At the same time, the emergence of such villages is also closely tied to the renewal of collective mindset in the village led by marginal peasant households.

Working Under the Lens: How Labor Visibility Impacts the Professional Autonomy of Early Childhood Educators?

Yupei CHEN

2026, 46(2):  147-181. 

Asbtract ( 10 )   HTML ( 0)   PDF (3521KB) ( 10 )  

Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

Amidst a trust crisis in institutional childcare, digital media technologies are increasingly deployed as a means of communication between family and educational institution, making"visibility" a key aspect of early childhood educators' work environment. Drawing on the theoretical perspective of professional autonomy, this paper examines the impact of visibility on teachers' professional practice. The study finds that, ECEC institutions adopt different modes of visibility based on their positions in the market, aiming to meet parents' demands for information access and remote care via media representation. However, such practices pose new challenges to the professional autonomy of early childhood educators. This is not only because media technologies have made the process of caregiving more visible to parents, but also, more fundamentally, because there is a mismatch between the nature of media representation and the logic of caregiving. And thus, its open-ended interpretations likely lead to conflicts between teachers and parents.Faced with the possibility that their work might be scrutinised, judged, or even interfered with, preschool teachers attempt to regain control over their work through three strategies: information control, relationship management, and conditional resistance. Meanwhile, the pursuit of visibility has led to unintended and paradoxical consequences for teachers: meeting the visibility demands, addressing the challenges it poses, and taking strategic actions to safeguard professional autonomy, have all become an integral part of their professional practice, thereby reducing the attentiveness and positive emotional engagement required for high-quality care and education.On the practical level, this study focuses and reflects on the impact of technology on teacher-child interactions and early childhood development; on the theoretical level, it proposes an analytical framework of "negotiated professional autonomy", advocating for an inquiry that is grounded in micro-level workplaces to explore how practitioners strive to gain control over professional matters through multi-agent interactions and everyday work practices, thereby expanding the scope of the sociological analysis of diverse occupations.

Praxis of Embodied Reflection in Family Transitions: A Case Study of Relocated Families in Policy-Driven Resettlement Communities in Ningxia

Wenjing XUE, Zongyang XU

2026, 46(2):  182-207. 

Asbtract ( 6 )   HTML ( 0)   PDF (2773KB) ( 16 )  

References | Related Articles | Metrics

This paper examines the issue of family modernization through the lens of policy-driven relocation. During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, policy-driven relocation in Ningxia created an objectively favorable environment for modernization development, yet the migrants experienced a sense of unease amid family changes. This research finds that this sense of unease does not arise from the damage to individual interests within the family, nor is it equivalent to the economic pressure exerted on individuals by the maximization of family development interests; instead, it stems from individuals' praxis of embodied reflection on the self and relationships. On one hand, the interest basis of the praxis of embodied reflection is not self-enclosed, so the interests of family members will naturally influence their risk perception, leading to anxiety derived from self-attribution for their children's development issues. On the other hand, the praxis of embodied reflection is not only a rational understanding of relationships but also an empathic resonance with others' attitudes. Consequently, migrants not only feel confused due to the contradictions of family responsibilities but also fall into doubt about relationships when family members reveal selfish tendencies in the process of adjusting responsibilities. However, while this process catalyzes a sense of unease, it also prompts individuals to take inward-directed actions, ultimately resolving the unease. This study argues that the praxis of embodied reflection is not an outward reflection starting from and ultimately returning to self-interest, but a process in which each family member-grounded in an open-ended stance of interest-comes to embody an awareness of others' responsibilities, dispositions and attitude amid family changes, and finds action choices that grant them peace of mind. The subject engaged in this praxis is an expandable self, which transcends the individualistic conception of the person in Western family theory. This reconceptualization allows the relationship between the individual, family, and society to be reimagined under a framework of mutual extension rather than opposition.

Understanding Co-ownership: Ideas and Practices of House Property in a Lineage-Based Hakka Village of South China

Chaoqun LIU

2026, 46(2):  208-242. 

Asbtract ( 9 )   HTML ( 1)   PDF (5624KB) ( 12 )  

Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

Taking the transformation of house property in a lineage-based Hakka village in South China as a case study, this paper explores how house co-ownership has persisted as a stable form of property tenure, rather than as a pre-modern relic on the path to "private ownership." The study finds that the ancestral hall-residence (ciwu) system in the case village constitutes the material ontology of lineage society and the spatiotemporal structure of communal property ownership. The systematic correspondence between the lineage branch (fang) system and the building system shapes a hierarchical order of property co-ownership. The integration of ancestral hall and residence accommodates both ritual and residential functions through a spatial layout characterised by a central axis symmetry and a courtyard complex. Inheritance practices that maintain unity amid division-such as cross-allocation and communal use-have enabled the long-term coexistence of property co-ownership and individual possession. The Land Reform of the 1950s dismantled lineage organizations and lineage communal property, redistributing many landlord properties to poor and lower-middle peasants with formal title registration. However, since the Reform and Opening-up in the 1980s, accompanied by the revival of ancestral worship practices, these households have gradually sold the properties back to the descendants of the original landlord families, leading to a reversion of house property toward the traditional logic of lineage and family co-ownership. Comparative case analysis reveals that the combination of "actual possession" (physical control) by descendants of the original landlord families and "virtual possession"(symbolic presence) by ancestors in the ancestral hall constitutes the crucial mechanism for reclaiming ancestral property and serves as an anchor for the restoration of co-ownership. Only when the integration of hall and residence is achieved-that is, when property co-owners simultaneously constitute a worship community aligned with the lineage structure-can a sense of complete ownership be attained, thereby ensuring the continuity of possession and the consolidation of ownership. This finding challenges the linear presumption of "possession leads to private ownership" in Western jurisprudence, demonstrating instead that possession can function as a precursor to communal ownership rather than privatization. The study suggests that understanding rural property rights in China requires attention to the ontological value of housing, and that modern property institutions may accommodate traditional co-ownership wisdom at the legal level.