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Governing by Project System: A Holistic Explanation Based on Four-Fold Mechanisms Puyuan SHI Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (1): 1-30.   Abstract （366）   HTML （20）    PDF（pc） （3297KB）（1069）       Knowledge map    Save Why can the project system be implemented in a stable, widespread and highly pervasive manner, and what operational logic does it demonstrate in specific governance practices?This paper distinguishes between two levels: the observational perspective and the analytical dimension. The former encompasses the relationship between the central and local governments, as well as that between the state and society; the latter includes the essential intent of the system, and the interactive practices of multiple subjects. Based on these two levels, this paper identifies four typical mechanisms: externality, principal-agent, legitimacy, and embeddedness, thereby providing a holistic interpretive framework for project-based governance. The externality mechanism addresses the spatial and temporal spillovers of project costs and benefits, while the ambiguous division of rights and responsibilities between central and local authorities leads to significant tensions. Moreover, it emphasizes the logic of public goods while failing to adequately capture the logic of modernization and development. The principal-agent mechanism focuses on analyzing the organizational transmission between central and local authorities, especially the multi-tasking problem, as well as the information asymmetry and ambiguity arising from different directions of specialised and localized knowledge. It also helps explain the bundling practices of economic development and social welfare, and the emerging phenomena of hybrid governance and project package contracting. The legitimacy mechanism explores how performance, procedural, and moral legitimacy are isomorphically and heterogeneously intertwined in complex project governance practices, and how are they manifested in grass-roots project operations. The embeddedness mechanism aims to clarify the "dual-track" politics and how it influences project operation modes and effectiveness.It also helps analyze the heterogeneity of project system, as well as the institutional changes of state governance. In addition to focusing on each mechanism separately, this paper also provides certain prospects from the perspectives of multi-dimensional and comprehensive interactions between multiple mechanisms. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Dilemma of Dianxing: A Study on Model Construction at Grassroots Governance from the Perspective of Resource-Task Relationships Zhen LI, Yang LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (6): 117-144.   Abstract （284）   HTML （17）    PDF（pc） （2812KB）（984）       Knowledge map    Save The mechanism of Model Construction(dianxing chuangjian典型创建) has served as one of the pivotal governance strategies for the CPC since the revolutionary era. Relevant academic research has generally approached the topic in three categories. Identifying and nurturing exemplary models has become a key approach for governments at all levels to advance rural revitalization and enhance the effectiveness of grassroots governance. However, the models at the grassroots level, which serve to attract the resources and attentions from local governments, now face the dilemma characterised by lack of the replicability, weakened capacity for experiential exploration, and"suspension" of knowledge production. This paper proposes a framework based on the relationship between"resources and workload". Using the rural revitalisation initiative in County L as a case study, it analyses the logic of model creation and the mechanisms leading to the difficulties in current grassroots governance practices. This analysis is grounded in the field investigation and in-depth interviews with participants in the government. Under the logic of resource allocation, exemplary models have become a crucial foundation for local governments to secure project fundings and attentions from higher level authorities. However, the selective allocation of governance resources has failed to substantially enhance the task capacity of grassroots organizations, resulting in short in representation. Moreover, the shortage of high quality human resources is another challenge that grassroots units struggle to overcome through model construction. Under the organizational task logic, being an exemplary model often brings new role tensions, significant increase of derivative tasks, particularly the burden of information production. The mismatch between resource allocation and organizational task-bearing capacity resulting from the convergence of these two logics led to the formation of the aforementioned model construction dilemma. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Understanding Co-ownership: Ideas and Practices of House Property in a Lineage-Based Hakka Village of South China Chaoqun LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (2): 208-242.   Abstract （139）   HTML （11）    PDF（pc） （5624KB）（718）       Knowledge map    Save Taking the transformation of house property in a lineage-based Hakka village in South China as a case study, this paper explores how house co-ownership has persisted as a stable form of property tenure, rather than as a pre-modern relic on the path to "private ownership." The study finds that the ancestral hall-residence (ciwu) system in the case village constitutes the material ontology of lineage society and the spatiotemporal structure of communal property ownership. The systematic correspondence between the lineage branch (fang) system and the building system shapes a hierarchical order of property co-ownership. The integration of ancestral hall and residence accommodates both ritual and residential functions through a spatial layout characterised by a central axis symmetry and a courtyard complex. Inheritance practices that maintain unity amid division-such as cross-allocation and communal use-have enabled the long-term coexistence of property co-ownership and individual possession. The Land Reform of the 1950s dismantled lineage organizations and lineage communal property, redistributing many landlord properties to poor and lower-middle peasants with formal title registration. However, since the Reform and Opening-up in the 1980s, accompanied by the revival of ancestral worship practices, these households have gradually sold the properties back to the descendants of the original landlord families, leading to a reversion of house property toward the traditional logic of lineage and family co-ownership. Comparative case analysis reveals that the combination of "actual possession" (physical control) by descendants of the original landlord families and "virtual possession"(symbolic presence) by ancestors in the ancestral hall constitutes the crucial mechanism for reclaiming ancestral property and serves as an anchor for the restoration of co-ownership. Only when the integration of hall and residence is achieved-that is, when property co-owners simultaneously constitute a worship community aligned with the lineage structure-can a sense of complete ownership be attained, thereby ensuring the continuity of possession and the consolidation of ownership. This finding challenges the linear presumption of "possession leads to private ownership" in Western jurisprudence, demonstrating instead that possession can function as a precursor to communal ownership rather than privatization. The study suggests that understanding rural property rights in China requires attention to the ontological value of housing, and that modern property institutions may accommodate traditional co-ownership wisdom at the legal level. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Between Affection and Righteousness: A Study on the Master-Apprentice Relationship from the Perspective of Ethics of Social Actions Penghan YU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 114-141.   Abstract （665）   HTML （23）    PDF（pc） （3026KB）（692）       Knowledge map    Save Existing research on Chinese apprenticeship system has primarily focused on its characteristics as a form of wage labor, while failing to address the underlying ethics of action-specifically, the distinctive "patriarchal" features inherent to the system. From the perspective of behavioural ethics, the possibility of establishing a master-apprentice relationship lies in the tendency to integrate new social relationships outside the family into existing ethical frameworks. Pre-Qin Confucian literatures encapsulate the ethical essence of master-apprentice bonds as "between affection(En) and righteousness(Yi)": the character-building objectives of their interactions define the ethical dimension of "Yi"; while their shared daily life and moral exchanges grounded in shared values define the ethical dimension of "En". This ethical relationship manifested in mourning rituals through the practice of three-year period of "mourning with the heart".The master-apprentice relationship exhibits remarkable flexibility in China's historical records: on the one hand, while quasi-familial phenomena were commonplace in Chinese society, written norms lacked explicit standards for such a relationship, rendering it exceptionally adaptable compared to other social relations. On the other hand, the master-apprentice relation had appeared intermittently throughout historical records, with its visibility generally correlating with the prominence of Confucian thought movements outside official institutions. This flexibility stem from the subjectivity with which actors perceive bonds of obligation and gratitude. Unlike foundational Confucian relationships such as father-son or monarch-subject, the master-apprentice relationship lacked objectively defined criteria. It was not anchored in clear blood ties or contractual agreements, consequently, the ritual system was incapable of imposing rigid and one-size-fits-all rules. Instead, it preserved a foundation of basic etiquette while allowing actors to express sentiments based on subjective emotions. This dual-dimensional perception of affection(En) and righteousness(Yi) continues to shape contemporary Chinese interpersonal interactions. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Interplay of Market System and Social Relation: Study on Rural Residents' Pick-up Package Hongfei YU, Xiulin SUN Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (6): 95-116.   Abstract （325）   HTML （37）    PDF（pc） （2181KB）（688）       Knowledge map    Save The rural express delivery program serves as a crucial measure for rural revitalization and holds significant importance for the integrated development in urban and rural areas. This study examines rural residents' strategies for picking up the deliveries as a case study and analyzes the social contexts underlying the implementation of express delivery logistics in rural society. It finds that the interplay between market system and social relation is a key factor in the successful implementation of the rural express delivery program. Rural residents adopt diverse strategies for receiving deliveries. They may choose to pick up packages while going to Ganji (market days), or utilize acquaintances to collect parcels on their behalf, and or even pay Modi (motorcycle taxi drivers) to retreat packages. These three distinct delivery collection strategies reflect the close relationship between market system and social relation in rural communities, and their varying forms of interplay. Picking up packages while going to Ganji represents market behaviours within social relation. This economic trade is deeply embedded in the cyclical patterns and order of rural social life and is the result of the stabilization of rural social relation. Social relation imbues the market with its unique character, further facilitating its function as a provider of market resources for rural residents. Asking acquaintances to pick up packages is a relational action within the market system, instrumentally utilizing the relational networks within the grassroots market structures and effectively sustaining market operations. As a model of market-relational integration, the unique occupation of Modi relies on acquaintance social networks. While the relational structure of rural society provides the foundation for its survival, it also constitutes an integral part of the rural market system. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the relationship between market system and social relation in rural China and its impact on the development of modern industry and market. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Two Origins of Max Weber's Concept of "Disenchantment": A Genealogical Examination Zhejun YU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 142-172.   Abstract （1217）   HTML （37）    PDF（pc） （3250KB）（672）       Knowledge map    Save This paper attempts to trace the origins of Max Weber's concept of "disenchantment"(Entzauberung) and its associated narrative through a combination of etymological analysis and and intellectual genealogy. It identifies two primary sources: German Romanticism represented by Schiller, and the 17th-century Dutch theologian Balthasar Bekker. In his work The Gods of Greece, Schiller introduced the concept of "de-deification" (Entgötterung), which was not merely a nostalgic or anti-Enlightenment gesture, but an attempt to improve humanity through the divine. German Romantics placed significant emphasis on "witchcraft" or "magic" (Zauber), proposing monism and aesthetics as pathways to overcome the shortcomings of a mechanistic worldview; Meanwhile Bekker's anti-witchcraft stance, drawing upon Cartesian dualism, argues for the ineffectiveness of witchcraft in defense of faith. Both approaches left their own unresolved issues: German Romanticism's aesthetic solution remained accessible only to a small intellectual elite, failing to address society as a whole, while its anthropomorphic theology proved unrealistic. Bekker's anti-witchcraft position, on the other hand, encountered two formidable challenges: the relationship between magic and religion, and the universal history of human religion. Weber's writings during World War I synthesised insights from both sources, addressing their respective unresolved problems to complete a "closure" of critical inquiry. On one hand, he recognized the void of meaning in modern civilization, advocating for "vocation"(Beruf) to combat the existential weariness; on the other, he proposed a historical schema of religious development, where the "disenchantment of religion" spilling over into the "disenchantment of the world", which in turn created room for discussions of "re-enchantment" against the backdrop of the "clash of the gods". Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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How Public Opinion Reshapes Grassroots Governance in the Digital Age: A Three-Tiered Analytical Framework Yiran ZHOU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 57-88.   Abstract （719）   HTML （26）    PDF（pc） （3624KB）（587）       Knowledge map    Save Using the primary and secondary education system as a case study, this paper examines the impact mechanism of public opinion in the digital age on grassroots governance. Departing from previous risk governance research that treats information transmission as an exogenous parameter, this article constructs an analytical framework of "information transmission transformation + governance structure transition + risk constraint reshaping", and introduces two concepts of "public visibility" and "superior visibility". This framework reveals the triple mechanism through which public opinion reshapes grassroots governance. At the level of information transmission, the traditional closed and hierarchical information control model is replaced by a two-way feedback mechanism. Horizontally, the public transforms from passive recipients of information to active producers, significantly enhancing information visibility through digital media and other channels. Vertically, information transcends hierarchical barriers, achieving direct access to higher levels of government, thereby weakening the original information advantage of the grassroots government. At the level of governance structure, public opinion promotes a transition from fragmented governance to collaborative governance. The public directly participates in the governance process through the expression of public opinion, shifting from external monitors to internal participants. Higher-level governments, leveraging digital monitoring tools, oversee local affairs much more closely, breaking down traditional boundaries of territorial administration and forming a horizontally and vertically coordinated governance network. At the level of risk constraints, the enhanced dual visibility of information subjects the grassroots governments to the dual pressures of public scrutiny and higher-level supervision, transforming grassroots risk constraints from elastic to rigid, and significantly compressing the risk avoidance space. The governance transformation driven by public opinion also spawns new structural contradictions: an inversion of governance capacity and responsibility risk, and a conflict between governance logic and the governance environment, leaving the grassroots facing unprecedented governance dilemmas. This paper provides a novel theoretical perspective for understanding governance transformation in the digital age. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Knowledge Misalignment: Organizational-Professional Interactions in Cross-Level Integration of Healthcare Yihan LIAN Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 205-238.   Abstract （501）   HTML （40）    PDF（pc） （3553KB）（475）       Knowledge map    Save The relationship between expertise and organizational structures has long been marked by both interdependence and tension, a dynamic particularly evident in technology collaboration between hospitals at different hierarchical tiers. Existing studies on healthcare resource integration have predominantly focused on institutional barriers while overlooking the complex mechanisms underlying the operation of knowledge. This paper, based on an organizational-professional interaction framework, presents a case study of a county-level hospital integrating into a "medical consortium" system and receiving technical support from a higher-level hospital. The study conceptualizes the knowledge practice dilemma triggered by institutional integration as "knowledge misalignment", wherein the relationships between hospitals, physicians, and medical technologies are reconstructed during consolidation, leading to inefficient knowledge operations in circulation, application, and interaction. This misalignment result in unintended consequences such as upward migration and concentration of patients and functional overlap, thereby deviating from the policy objectives of the "tiered healthcare delivery system". Specifically, in terms of knowledge flow, physicians are constrained by organizational boundaries and career development incentives, leading to the short-term and inefficient nature of cross-institutional practice; in knowledge application, the mismatch between advanced technologies and primary healthcare settings increases medical risks; and in knowledge interaction, the unequal relationship between senior and junior doctors reinforces the dominance of specialized expertise, further marginalizing primary care. These mechanisms reveal the deep-seated challenges in healthcare resource integration. This study expands the sociological perspective on cross-level healthcare integration and critically reflects on the institutional tensions in China's pursuit of healthcare equity: professional knowledge systems are not merely passive objects controlled by administrative power, but rather closely intertwined with organizational conditions, constituting an integral element within the hierarchical structure of healthcare. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Universal Particularism and the Indigenous Paradigm of Guanxi Research: Taking "Attitude" as the Core Concept Qifeng HE Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 89-113.   Abstract （451）   HTML （21）    PDF（pc） （2492KB）（445）       Knowledge map    Save The concept of guanxi differs between Chinese and Western contexts. As an indigenous Chinese concept, guanxi embodies the feature of "universal particularism". This paper aims to explore this characteristic and attempt to construct an indigenous paradigm for the study of guanxi. Specifically, "particularism" is manifested in the fact that the understanding of all relationships is inseparable from specific actors and their contextual settings, nor can it be fully explained by existing structural indicators. "Universality", on the other hand, is reflected in the fact that all relational practices adhere to the ethical principles of a"differential mode of association", proposed by Fei Xiaotong, meaning that actors inevitably define relationships through an internal moral compass of"putting oneself in others' shoes". This makes "particularity" a universal logic that permeates different contexts.This paper argues that the core of understanding guanxi lies in grasping the "attitude" based on the actor's perspective. This attitude is a comprehensive consideration of objective factors such as identity foundations, degrees of closeness, and reciprocity, as well as subjective factors including interaction history, current circumstances, and the actor's mindset. It represents the actor's integrated internal judgment when faced with a specific individual. This research paradigm has achieved a dual theoretical shift in guanxi studies: first, it moves away from "instrumental rationality" towards an "ethical foundation", rejecting the simplification of guanxi as utilitarian tools for the exchange of interests. Instead, it first places relationships within the ethical framework of the "differential mode of association", emphasizing how moral practices such as"putting oneself in others' shoes" and "empathy" profoundly shape the dynamics of relationship; Second, it shifts from "structural analysis" to an "actor's perspective", transcending the binary division between formal and informal relationships, and focusing on how actors' subjective "attitudes" dynamically construct the overall nature of relationships. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Breaking the Iron Cage: Personal Ties, Adaptive Rule-Bending, and the Neo-Weberian Reconstruction of Bureaucracy Chang LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (1): 31-70.   Abstract （313）   HTML （23）    PDF（pc） （3811KB）（432）       Knowledge map    Save In response to sweeping critiques of bureaucracy in Western intellectual discourse, the neo-Weberian tradition has adopted a global perspective to examine how bureaucratic institutions take shape across diverse institutional and cultural contexts. Seeking to recover the constructive potential of bureaucracy, this body of work reconsiders Weber's canonical features and explores their pragmatic and normative adaptations. Within this framework, particular attention has been paid to two themes—personal ties and adaptive rule-bending—both of which hold significant relevance for governance practices in China. This article traces the historical origins of the neo-Weberian research, reviews representative empirical studies centered on these two elements, and excavates the theoretical assumptions and normative commitments that underpin them. I argue that the so-called "revival of bureaucracy" is, at its core, a search for how value rationality might be re-integrated into systems increasingly dominated by formal rationality. The use of personal ties or adaptive rule-bending is treated as a strategic means through which morally conscious bureaucrats might absorb, recalibrate, and ultimately incorporate anti-bureaucratic elements into a rationalized administrative order. Yet this technocratic vision of bureaucratic moral agency rests on a universalizing assumption: that commitment to the public sphere, distinct from private interests, constitutes the sole legitimate foundation of bureaucratic ethics. This assumption overlooks the plural moral orders embedded in distinct institutional and historical contexts and forecloses the possibility of alternative sources of organizational legitimacy beyond the bureaucratic form itself. While the neo-Weberian framework offers valuable reparative insights, it remains confined by the limits of its own theoretical imagination. For scholars of Chinese governance, this calls for a renewed effort to locate moral and institutional foundations for bureaucracy that are rooted in indigenous historical experience and ethical traditions. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Between Qing and Li: From Father-Son Estrangement to Father-Son Unity—A Case Study of Ang Lee's Father Trilogy Shuoyan LI, Yiyi LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (1): 138-170.   Abstract （380）   HTML （22）    PDF（pc） （3917KB）（394）       Knowledge map    Save This article takes Ang Lee's Father Trilogy as a case study to examine the root causes of conflict and the mechanisms of reconfiguration in contemporary Chinese father-son relations. It argues that the tensions between fathers and sons depicted in the films do not stem solely from the clash between traditional and modern values, but are rooted in the structural repression of qing (affection) by the normative force of li (ritual/propriety) in Confucian ethics. When fathers, in the name of "it's for your own good", stubbornly uphold ritual demands such as patrilineal continuity and stern paternal authority, sons are caught in a constant tug-of-war between fulfilling filial obligations and pursuing self-realization. Building on the Confucian dialectic of qing and li, the article introduces the phenomenological notion of the halo of time, and shows that the repair of father-son relations is not a zero-sum game of unilateral concession. Rather, reconciliation emerges through shared memories and overlapping temporal experiences, in which the intertwining of retention, primal impression, and protention reactivates an original sense of kinship (qinqin zhi qing), thereby driving context-specific adjustments in ritual practice. However, even when fathers temporarily suspend their fixation on li and sons, through affective recognition, reconstruct their practice of filial piety, the deeper structural tension does not disappear. This is because male offspring are more tightly embedded in the pressure chain of family responsibility and thus confronted with a structural double bind in which paternal love always entails expectation, while the pursuit of freedom almost inevitably implies betraying that love. In sum, the article constructs an integrated analytical framework of qing-li-time, arguing that under conditions of loosening authority and family transformation, an affect-centered ethical logic still plays a crucial stabilizing and mediating role amid conflict. This study not only clarifies the dynamics of change in Chinese father-son relations but also provides a broadly applicable framework for understanding the emotional dynamics of kinship in cross-cultural contexts. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Gentry and the Genesis of Modern Industry in China: A Case Study of the Pingxiang Coal Mines in the Late Qing Dynasty Qi MENG Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (1): 109-137.   Abstract （215）   HTML （8）    PDF（pc） （3243KB）（391）       Knowledge map    Save Taking the establishment of the Pingxiang Coal Mines as a case study, this paper explores the specific mechanisms through which modern industry took root in late Qing China. A definitive feature of Chinese society at the time was the central position occupied by the gentry class within its social structure, coupled with the absence of modern legal systems and a functioning state apparatus. This constituted a major divergence between China's social environment and those of Western Europe and Japan during the introduction of modern industry. The impact of this divergence on China's modern industrialisation was complex: some attempts to introduce industrial enterprises failed due to opposition from the gentry, while others succeeded. This paper examines the Pingxiang Coal Mines as one such relatively successful case. It argues that the stratification and internal connections within the gentry class played a crucial role in integrating the enterprise into local society. Upper-tier gentry figures such as Wen Tingshi served a dual role as both state bureaucrats and local elites. The ethical and interest tensions inherent in these identities fostered a persuasive transmission process from self-strengthening bureaucrats to upper gentry and further to lower-tier elites. Local gentry, drawing upon existing gentry networks, formed an intermediary group that facilitated communication between enterprises and local communities, promoting the alignment of interests between the two. As a result, the Pingxiang Coal Mines achieved large-scale acquisition of local industries and the initiation of modern industrial production, thereby driving much broader social transformation. This paper suggests that, under specific historical conditions, the collision between China's traditional social environment and modern industry may have configured to forge a unique development trajectory, generating a new power-interest structure between enterprises and local society, triggering industrial transformation and comprehensive social change. The paper reveals the intrinsic connection between China's industrial development and social transformation, providing a reference point for understanding contemporary relations between enterprises and society. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Working Under the Lens: How Labor Visibility Impacts the Professional Autonomy of Early Childhood Educators? Yupei CHEN Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (2): 147-181.   Abstract （139）   HTML （9）    PDF（pc） （3521KB）（388）       Knowledge map    Save Amidst a trust crisis in institutional childcare, digital media technologies are increasingly deployed as a means of communication between family and educational institution, making"visibility" a key aspect of early childhood educators' work environment. Drawing on the theoretical perspective of professional autonomy, this paper examines the impact of visibility on teachers' professional practice. The study finds that, ECEC institutions adopt different modes of visibility based on their positions in the market, aiming to meet parents' demands for information access and remote care via media representation. However, such practices pose new challenges to the professional autonomy of early childhood educators. This is not only because media technologies have made the process of caregiving more visible to parents, but also, more fundamentally, because there is a mismatch between the nature of media representation and the logic of caregiving. And thus, its open-ended interpretations likely lead to conflicts between teachers and parents.Faced with the possibility that their work might be scrutinised, judged, or even interfered with, preschool teachers attempt to regain control over their work through three strategies: information control, relationship management, and conditional resistance. Meanwhile, the pursuit of visibility has led to unintended and paradoxical consequences for teachers: meeting the visibility demands, addressing the challenges it poses, and taking strategic actions to safeguard professional autonomy, have all become an integral part of their professional practice, thereby reducing the attentiveness and positive emotional engagement required for high-quality care and education.On the practical level, this study focuses and reflects on the impact of technology on teacher-child interactions and early childhood development; on the theoretical level, it proposes an analytical framework of "negotiated professional autonomy", advocating for an inquiry that is grounded in micro-level workplaces to explore how practitioners strive to gain control over professional matters through multi-agent interactions and everyday work practices, thereby expanding the scope of the sociological analysis of diverse occupations. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Meritocratic Professionalism: The Cultural Logic of Skill Embeddedness among Chinese Musicians in Germany Jiaxuan YU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 26-56.   Abstract （469）   HTML （27）    PDF（pc） （3230KB）（379）       Knowledge map    Save This study investigates the emergence of meritocratic professionalism among Chinese musicians in Germany. The Chinese and German societies differ in terms of both culture and institutions, which results in differences in the meaning, construction, and social consequences of interpersonal relationships. In Chinese Society, the guanxi-oriented concept is one of the most important guiding principles for handling all aspects of social life. The organizational structure of Chinese society is characterized by the chaxugeju, in which people distinguish insiders from outsiders in a self-centered, gradational way. In such a system, guanxi are often built on (quasi-)ascribed ties such as kinship. In contrast, the German classical music field exhibits a typical community-oriented logic of relationship building, which emphasizes achieved community formation based on individual interests or affinities. In the German classical music field, the general trajectory of professional socialization leads musicians to gradually internalize the significance of both social relationships and professional skills, fostering an integrated professionalism that values both dimensions. However, influenced by the guanxi ethic embedded in the chaxugeju pattern, Chinese musicians often cannot fully perceive and understand the local logic of social embeddedness grounded in professional communities, resulting in an overwhelming emphasis on skill embeddedness and the development of meritocratic professionalism. By displaying the concrete process through how new professional values emerge among Chinese migrants, this study moves a step forward from prevailing accounts that conceptualize cross-cultural adaptation as a process of selectively adopting or combining pre-existing cultures. It demonstrates that such new values may not derive directly from the migrants' culture of origin nor fully align with the host culture, but instead take shape as novel cultural forms constructed through the tensions between the two which shaped by the interplay of multiple dimensions of embeddedness. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Praxis of Embodied Reflection in Family Transitions: A Case Study of Relocated Families in Policy-Driven Resettlement Communities in Ningxia Wenjing XUE, Zongyang XU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (2): 182-207.   Abstract （141）   HTML （18）    PDF（pc） （2773KB）（369）       Knowledge map    Save This paper examines the issue of family modernization through the lens of policy-driven relocation. During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, policy-driven relocation in Ningxia created an objectively favorable environment for modernization development, yet the migrants experienced a sense of unease amid family changes. This research finds that this sense of unease does not arise from the damage to individual interests within the family, nor is it equivalent to the economic pressure exerted on individuals by the maximization of family development interests; instead, it stems from individuals' praxis of embodied reflection on the self and relationships. On one hand, the interest basis of the praxis of embodied reflection is not self-enclosed, so the interests of family members will naturally influence their risk perception, leading to anxiety derived from self-attribution for their children's development issues. On the other hand, the praxis of embodied reflection is not only a rational understanding of relationships but also an empathic resonance with others' attitudes. Consequently, migrants not only feel confused due to the contradictions of family responsibilities but also fall into doubt about relationships when family members reveal selfish tendencies in the process of adjusting responsibilities. However, while this process catalyzes a sense of unease, it also prompts individuals to take inward-directed actions, ultimately resolving the unease. This study argues that the praxis of embodied reflection is not an outward reflection starting from and ultimately returning to self-interest, but a process in which each family member-grounded in an open-ended stance of interest-comes to embody an awareness of others' responsibilities, dispositions and attitude amid family changes, and finds action choices that grant them peace of mind. The subject engaged in this praxis is an expandable self, which transcends the individualistic conception of the person in Western family theory. This reconceptualization allows the relationship between the individual, family, and society to be reimagined under a framework of mutual extension rather than opposition. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Social World of Scholar-Officials in Traditional China: A Micro-Sociological Analysis of Zeng Guofan's Diary and Correspondence Xueguang ZHOU, Jiashuo ZHANG Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (2): 1-29.   Abstract （248）   HTML （58）    PDF（pc） （4424KB）（347）       Knowledge map    Save Building on the sociological insight into the "social construction of reality", this study examines how scholar-officials (士大夫) in traditional China constructed their social worlds through everyday activities that served as the basis for social action. Our study begins with the observation that, throughout Chinese history, Confucian culture had fostered a dualism between a family-state-oriented spiritual world and a secular world of kin-based social relations. Although these two worlds integrated, they were fraught with tensions, imparting distinctive characteristics to China's state-building and bureaucratic system. Building on this observation, this study applies a micro-sociological analysis of the diaries and correspondences of Zeng Guofan, a prominent late Qing scholar-official. We explore the relationship between Zeng's social activities and his spiritual pursuits, with a particular focus on the con struction of his social world. Our research reveals that Zeng's spiritual pursuits and social activities were largely distinct from one another and rarely intersected. We measure and analyze types of social groups with whom Zeng interacted, the interaction patterns both within and between groups, and the structural features of the social network centered on Zeng Guofan. While Zeng's two worlds remained distinct, his social world was structured by a"differential mode of association"(差序格局), a relational pattern that was dynamic and evolved over time. By leveraging the depth of a case-study approach, this study makes two main contributions. First, it develops a research approach of combining theoretical insights and analytical concepts for examining individuals' social worlds, a central concern in sociology. Second, it proposes and demonstrates a set of empirical strategies for operationalizing textual data drawn from diary and correspondence. We hope this study will stimulate further research on the social worlds of scholar- officials in Chinese history and their implications for understanding governance in contemporary China. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Individual Freedom within Social Control: An Interpretation of Dewey's Curriculum Reform from Social Theory Perspective Yong YANG Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (1): 71-108.   Abstract （244）   HTML （14）    PDF（pc） （3597KB）（341）       Knowledge map    Save This paper analyzes and discusses Dewey's curriculum reform to specifically reveal the substantive content and empirical basis underlying the iconic concept of "social control" in American social theory. In his dialogues with progressive educators, Dewey explicitly opposed the notion of "individual freedom without social control" and advocated instead for "individual freedom within social control". This viewpoint was concretely manifested through the curriculum reform of the Laboratory School. In the field of education, social control refers to teachers guiding students to immerse themselves in the "situations" presented by the curriculum through the implementation of curriculum plans and the use of teaching materials, so that students can perceive the guidance and control of social forces in terms of their behaviors, ideas and emotions. Applying an analytical framework that examines the interaction between "action" and "environment" further illuminates the theoretical implications of social control. On the one hand, Dewey engaged with Rousseau's theory of natural education, arguing that individual actions are inevitably controlled by the social environment, and the traditions of civilization hold indelible educational significance. On the other hand, he opposed Durkheimian social education, maintaining that social control that truly fulfills its educational function cannot be separated from individuals' internal responses, and arguing that activating individuals' behavioral states through the "stimulus-response" mechanism constitutes a more important educational end. Overall, Dewey sought to use the concept of social control to describe a state of life where individuals wholeheartedly "act" in an "environment" with inherent meaning, and on this basis, to reconceptualize the relationship between individual freedom and civilizations. Dewey's concept of social control shaped the problem awareness of early American social theory and is intrinsically consistent with the connotation of "the pedagogical power"(教化权力) as expounded by Hsiao-Tung Fei. Clarifying this connection will help us reflect on the complex relationship between individual freedom and civilized traditions, and inspires actions based on sound judgment. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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From "Deduction" to "Dialectics": The Methodological Foundation and Evolution of Marx's Historical Sociology Yang LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (5): 1-25.   Abstract （585）   HTML （42）    PDF（pc） （2293KB）（310）       Knowledge map    Save Karl Marx pioneered one of classical traditions in historical sociology. In order to explore the uniqueness of Karl Marx's historical sociology, it is essential to delve into its methodological foundations. This study traces the formation and evolution of the methodological basis of Marx's historical sociology through his four distinct understandings of "history". In his critique of German historicism, particularly Hegel's philosophy of history, Marx developed the first relatively complete methodological framework for historical sociology: the historical deduction of production. This approach employs historical deduction, taking production as its logical starting point of historical analysis to deduce the formation of human society, thereby achieving a conclusion of social history over extended periods. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx refined this methodology through his historical analysis of "class". By critiquing Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Marx began to consider how to apply dialectics to political economy. Thus, Marx developed a more refined methodological framework for his historical sociology—"Dialectics of Phenomena in History"—whereby any existence is historically generated, and entities in the process of generation can only approximate the factuality of existence through continuous "sublation"("Aufhebung") within the historical process. When confronting different analytical objectives, one must first establish distinct historical phenomena according to dialectical logic. When confronting historical phenomena serving different cognitive purposes, one must select distinct causal analysis strategies. In response to the critique of Capital, Marx made further, albeit unfinished, reflections on the conditionality and non-necessity of generative history. Rethinking the methodological foundations of Karl Marx's historical sociology also provides insights for historical sociology research oriented towards social theory. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Returns on Skills in an Era of Technological Change and Multi-Dimensional Segmentation of Chinese Labor Market Peng WANG, Antao LI, Xin LIU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2025, 45 (6): 208-238.   Abstract （419）   HTML （20）    PDF（pc） （2892KB）（306）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, technological innovations represented by automation and generative artificial intelligence have accelerated the reshaping of labor markets. Against this backdrop, China's labor market has been simultaneously shaped by both traditional stratification structures and the growing skill premium, resulting in a more complex and dynamic landscape. Drawing on large-scale online recruitment as well as survey data, this study systematically examines the skill-based segmentation of China's labor market and how it interacts with traditional institutional divides. Key findings reveal that skill disparities have emerged as a critical dimension of labor market differentiation in China. Workers engaged in occupations requiring higher levels of abstract cognitive skills enjoy significant advantages over other skill groups in terms of employment risks, income levels, working conditions, and social security benefits. These advantages persist even after accounting for differences in human capital and institutional segmentation. Furthermore, skill stratification interacts heterogeneously with traditional institutional segmentation: institutional protections in the public sector mitigate market consequences of skill disparities- particularly in employment risks and earnings-whereas the hukou system fails to exhibit such buffering effects. Notably, wage gaps driven by skill differences are even more pronounced among urban hukou holders. Overall, the findings support our hypothesis that skills constitute a key dimension of labor market segmentation in contemporary China. The market has become increasingly differentiated along the axis of skill competitiveness, with workers possessing higher-level abstract cognitive skills occupying more advantageous positions in terms of market returns. At the same time, technology-driven skill premiums and pre-existing institutional logics jointly shape hierarchical orders, underscoring the complexity of "layered transitions" within China's modernization process. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Governance Impossibility Triangle Li-An ZHOU Chinese Journal of Sociology    2026, 46 (3): 1-31.   Abstract （291）   HTML （10）    PDF（pc） （3137KB）（292）       Knowledge map    Save Building on the analysis of administrative subcontracting, this paper develops the governance impossibility triangle as a mid-range theoretical framework. It argues that within any hierarchical principal-agent structure, three constraints-rigid performance targets, fixed resource constraints, and strict rule enforcement-cannot be simultaneously maximized. Organizations must therefore make structural trade-offs among these three elements. Based on this insight, the paper reinterprets three ideal-typical governance forms-administrative subcontracting, Weberian bureaucracy, and modern corporate governance-as distinct equilibria under different constraint combinations. It further derives a set of testable propositions to explain endogenous phenomena such as the expansion of informal institutions, selective implementation, campaign-style governance, ambiguous subcontracting, and organizational distortion. The paper also examines the implicit conditions under which the triangle holds-including technological limits, organizational absorption capacity, agent behavior, risk externalization, and legitimacy resources-and identifies potential pathways for reconfiguration, such as technological innovation, extraordinary mobilization, and organizational restructuring. By distinguishing between ex ante and ex post uncertainty management, it reveals a fundamental divide between bureaucratic and subcontracting logics. Finally, the paper argues that China's governance system, under conditions of rigid targets, resource constraints, dispersed information, and high risk externalities, has evolved into a hybrid structure: bureaucracy as the institutional base, subcontracting as the operational engine, and externalized organizational forms as complementary absorbers. This configuration enables governance to remain viable under structurally impossible conditions. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）